Introduction

Agroforestry is a type of land use that has traditionally been practiced in different regions of the world. The type and composition of trees are different based on topography, physiological characteristics, and socioeconomic circumstances. The integration of trees or the purposeful maintenance of trees on agricultural land is generally referred to as agroforestry  The primary objectives of agroforestry are to produce food, fodder, fuel-wood, and/or timber. There can also be co-benefits such as carbon sequestration, enhancing water quality, protecting soil, and conserving biodiversity

History of agroforestry

. There is a long-standing history of Nepali farmers propagating trees on their land. The increasing population has put significant pressure on the forest, which is intensified by the fragile geology and traditional farming system in Nepal, leading to landslides, floods, and downstream sedimentation. Farmers in the hills have expanded the number of agroforestry trees on their farmland in response to forest degradation and deforestation, to meet their immediate demand for fodder, fuelwood, and small-sized timber products. Previously, agroforestry products were used by rural people as a means of livelihood. With the government's introduction of land allocation for the poor in community forests, leasehold forests, and various subsidies, rural farmers have begun to commercialize agroforestry products like cardamom. Agroforestry is commonly done on both private and communal land as a promising land-use alternative to fulfill needs. Agroforestry on public and private land is emerging as a promising land-use alternative for producing diverse products to meet the needs of rural people while also protecting the remaining forest area from further damage  

The Taungya system was the first agroforestry system used in Nepal in the early 1970s at Tamagadhi, Bara, by the then Department of Forest in collaboration with the Sagarnath Forestry Development Project to protect the remaining Shorea robusta Forest and its associated trees in central Nepal by involving poor and landless villagers as Taungya planters. For three to four years, they planted crops under the remnant trees and between the new plants. Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Dalbergia sissoo, and Tectona grandis were the  tree species which were planted by the Department of Forests. Species like Zea mays, Brassica juncea, and other seasonal vegetables were planted in between the areas where agricultural crops were harvested twice a year.

 Huyan Tsang, a trader, has also touched upon the animal ‘Yak” during his visit to Nepal sometime in the sixth century. Yak would need fodder and people should be having such provisions for feeding Yak. A sort of silvopastoral system might have been in operation during that period. Taungya, which originated in Asia, achieved some degree of success at the start and was adopted by governments of other countries in equatorial Africa and Latin America. Of late, however, farmers have grown wary of the system because it grants no guarantees of tenure over land, and participants usually have to shift from one location to another every three years. Thus, there has been a decline in the number of participant farmers. The irony is that the more successful the cooperating farmers are in establishing the tree crop, the sooner they will be transferred by the ,government to another open site. Consequently, some of them are motivated to "fail", and they deliberately cause failures by killing young trees. Another reason for the decline of taungya is the. growing realization among farmers that their" compensation", solely in terms bf the yields of their food crops, is less than those of other reforestation workers under normal wage arrangements. Consequently, government projects now have to supplement the "wage in kind" with cash wages. Rana Prime Minister Juddha Samsher started a rule to plant at least a sapling before cutting a mature tree from one’s private land. This can be considered a historical milestone of Private Forest development in Nepal. During the period of King Jayasthiti Malla in 1379, a legal provision to develop forests on any private land uncultivated for five years or more was established. The Community Forestry programme was formally launched in Nepal in 1978 with the enactment of the Panchayat Forest Rules and the Panchayat Protected Forest Rules. The Community Forestry policy along with Community Forestry legislation has been continuously reformed over time. These reforms have recognised the use rights of the local people in the management of forest resources and established them as managers. Since the inception twenty-four years ago the progress in policy shift has been tremendous. However, the actual implementation is still slow in pace. This paper aims to review and analyse the policy changes during this period and discusses the constraints and opportunities provided by the Community Forestry programme in Nepal.Taungya, which originated in Asia, achieved some degree of success at the start and was adopted by governments of other countries in equatorial Africa and Latin America.  Thus, there has been a decline in the number of partiCipant farmers. The irony is that the more successful the cooperating farmers are in establishing the tree crop, the sooner they will be transferred by the ,government to another open site. Consequently, some of them are motivated to "fail", and they deliberately cause failures by killing young trees. Another reason for the decline of taungya is the growing realization among farmers that their" compensation", solely in terms bf the yields of their food crops, is less than those of other reforestation workers under normal wage arrangements. Consequently, government projects now have to supplement the "wage in kind" with cash wages.  The Asia Pacific Agroforestry Network (APAN) funded by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations was also instrumental in sharing agroforestry-related information within and outside the country through knowledge documentation. Exchange visits were carried out among farmers practicing agroforestry within the country which helped them understand the basic science of agroforestry and practice scientifically on their farmland.

The existing situation of agroforestry in Nepal

Agroforestry systems and practices vary in the terai and mid-hill region and within the region vary with location. Mostly, traditional agroforestry practices are adopted in terai and mid-hills however, gradually shifting to commercial practices. In terai, mostly the agroforestry practices were farm-based commercial, focusing on timber species such as eucalyptus, tectona, mango and poplar. The central parts of mid-hills are dominated by farm-based subsistence practices with a combination of fruits and fodder trees whereas, farm-based commercial practices are adopted in western and eastern mid-hills dominated by tea, coffee, cardamom, red pepper and some other minor forest products. The farmers are practicing agroforestry with their traditional knowledge and have limited knowledge of the management of the complex integrated system. So, capacity building and awareness-raising on agroforestry can contribute to the development of agroforestry in the region. The modern agroforestry systems have the potential to improve livelihood through the production of food, fodder, and firewood as well as mitigation of the impact of climate change. Therefore, it's high time to study local people's perception towards agroforestry adoption and suggest potential agroforestry practices and their benefits for the upliftment of their livelihood. This research was conducted in Susta rural municipality, Pratappur rural municipality, and Bardaghat municipality of Nawalaparasi (West) district to explore the existing agroforestry practices followed by the people, its contribution to the economy of households, to understand the people's perception/attitude towards its adoption and finally to propose the potential agroforestry practices. Primary data were collected using Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools and secondary information through journals and reports. The analysis begins with distinguishing agroforestry systems and practices, preference of trees, benefits through these practices, people's perception, and problems regarding these practices. A total of 39 tree species and 30 food crop species were planted by 282 household people surveyed. Mangifera indica (relative prevalence 25.92%) is the most predominant fruit species whereas Dalbergia sissoo (relative prevalence 21.28%) is the most predominant timber species. It was found that the boundary planting pattern of the agroforestry system is most (40%) used by farmers of Parasi. The result demonstrated that agroforestry aids in the improvement of livelihood. Nevertheless, respondents have experienced increment incidences of pests and diseases to the annual crops and trees. Hence, the provision of training to improve the skills and knowledge of households seem to be the major need to flourish the agroforestry practices.Existing agroforestry practices and their contribution to the socio-economic condition of the people of west Nawalparasi, Nepal: mango is the most prevalent fruit tree, timber species, and fodder species are mango, sisso, and Melia azedarach respectively for the agroforestry system. The majority of farmers prefer fruit species followed by fodder species, timber species, ornamental and medicinal plants. respectively in Nawalparasi district. Farmers planted in three different ways i.e.,

boundary planting, scattered planting, and block planting. AF practices have given direct benefits by selling products like timber, fuelwood, fodder, fruits, crops, and vegetables. Most farmers are unknown of the benefits of agroforestry.

Different agroforestry system practiced in Terai

1) Agrisilviculture : Tea (Camelia sinensis) under Albizia procera and Dalbergia sissoo. Turmeric and ginger under Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Seasonal agricultural crops under Tectona grandis

2) Agrisilvihorticulture; Fruit–trees and crops along with T. grandis, Shorea borneensis, and D. sissoo. Fruit–trees, agricultural crops, and seasonal vegetables along with E. camaldulensis.

3) Agrosilvopastoral; Agricultural crops along with Acacia catechu and Elaeocarpus ganitrus, and pig farming.

4) Agrohortosilvopastoral; Agricultural crops and Areca catechu along with T. grandis, E. camaldulensis, A. catechu, and livestock

5) Silvofishery; Fish farming in conjunction with T. grandis, D. sissoo, and mango trees.

6) Homegarden;

7) Apiculture; Bee farming in conjunction with T. grandis

8) hortisilviculture; Avocado and pomegranate trees along with T. grandis and E. camaldulensis

Different agroforestry system found in hilly region of Nepal

1) Agrisilviculture; Tea under Alnus nepalensis. Cardamom under A. nepalensis.

2) Agrisilvihorticulture; NTFPs along with fodder and fruit–trees.

3) Agrosilvopastoral; T. maxima along with fodder trees and livestock. Cardamom and C. tamala along with E. ganitrus and banana plants.

4) Home garden

5) Hortosilvipastoral; Multipurpose trees, fodder trees, fruit–trees, and grasses along with livestock

6) Silvopastoral; S. wallichii, Litsea monopetala, F. semicordata, and grasses along with goat farming.

7) Alley cropping

Problems of agroforestry

1) Socioeconomic constraints of farmers

The adoption of agroforestry practices is affected by a household's or farmer's socioeconomic status. The initial high costs of agroforestry system adoption, lack of information on the benefits of agroforestry practices, farmers' ignorance of the full benefits of agroforestry systems, and limited markets and market information on agroforestry-based products are just a few hindrances preventing agroforestry system adoption in Nepal.

2) High adoption costs of agroforestry system

The initial cost of implementing proper agroforestry practices is expensive since it requires technical knowledge, high-quality planting materials, and other infrastructure suited to the size of the land, geographical location, and current and potential market demand. The limited area of land per household makes it difficult to develop a large number of agroforestry products. Farmers with extra income from off-farm activities are positively connected with the adoption decision of the agroforestry system in Nepal. Agroforestry is recognized as a sustainable land use practice. However, the uptake of such a promising land use practice is slow. T Having a source of off-farm income was positively associated with the adoption decision of farmers. Area of farmland was found as the major constraint to agroforestry adoption for smallholder farmers. Irrigation was another adoption constraint that the study area farmers were faced with. The households with a means of transport and with a larger family (household) size were found to be reluctant regarding agroforestry adoption. A collective farming practice could be a strategy to engage the smallholder farmers in agroforestry..

3) Lack of benefit-cost analysis of agroforestry practices

Due to a lack of benefit-cost analysis of agroforestry methods, farmers have less confidence in adopting the technology, leading to a low adoption rate. When deciding whether or not to adopt new technology, adopters frequently consider the costs and benefits of the new technology. Farmers are more concerned with the profitability of such measures over existing practices, rejecting the less profitable ones. However, there is a lack of information on high-quality planting materials, plantation, harvesting, and post-harvesting technology, and the cost and benefit of incorporating different agroforestry models.

4) Low level of awareness among farmers on the benefits of agroforestry systems

Farmers are more concerned with the profitability of such measures over existing practices, rejecting the less profitable ones. However, there is a lack of information on high-quality planting materials, plantation, harvesting, and post-harvesting technology, and the cost and benefit of incorporating different agroforestry models.

5) Lack of organized markets for agroforestry products

Although a few specific markets for specialist products are developing in Nepal, the majority of farmers might not have access to them. Because many agroforestry commodities lack marketing institutions, marketing research, and grade or quality standards. The demand and supply characteristics of agroforestry-based goods and their beneficiaries determine market size, structure, and value chain, therefore market information is crucial for value addition and developing investment strategies for related businesses

The Department of Forests and Soil Conservation has a private and agroforestry sub-division under the community forest division, but there is no specialized program or human resources to develop agroforestry in the country. We also see little integration between agriculture and forestry in policy and administration in the countries, and weak enforcement by the relevant ministries.

7) Financial constraint

Subsistence farming provided a source of income for a majority of rural farmers. As these farmers need initial adoption costs in bearing the high risk of changing their land-use system, those poor farmers may need financial support, which is lacking at the local level.

8) lack of knowledge and experts

The agroforestry practices existed since ancient times in Nepal in a subsistence form, which lacks the commercial aspect of agroforestry. Lack of knowledge and sufficient expert personnel in the field to conduct agroforestry research and development. There is also a limited university curriculum and graduates in the field.

9) Technological constraint

The technology used in agroforestry interventions is essential to its success. A few projects in the country have pushed agroforestry methods by introducing exotic tree species and technologies, devaluing local species, traditional knowledge, and practices. Exotic species introduce two big risks: the first, which is unacceptable to farmers, and the second, which is environmentally inappropriate.

Opportunities of agroforestry

1)  Traditional farming system has not been adequate to sustain agricultural production and present level of food requirements. Agroforestry gives multiple products to meet growing demand of increasing human population and livestock. These products are food/vegetables/fruits, fodder, and forage needed for livestock, fuelwood, timber, leaf litter needed for organic manure production, and other NTFPs.

2)  Agroforestry gives those products that improve the nutritive value of animal and human diets.

 3)Ultimately, the agroforestry system helps to increase overall farm productivity and higher income for the farmers in a long run.

4) Agroforestry systems stimulate organic matter decomposition, nutrient recycling, and provide erosion control and help to improve farm site ecology. The decline in soil fertility and consequent decline in agricultural productivity, a significant aspect of inevitable changes taking place in the traditional hill farming system, could partly be compensated by improved agroforestry practices

5) Agroforestry practice helps to protect remaining forests by stabilizing shifting cultivation and by reducing pressure on community forests and other natural forests for fodder, fuelwood, and timber.

6) Agroforestry systems enhance the functional biodiversity of the landscape. In both tropical and temperate regions of the world, agroforestry can play a vital role in conserving and even boosting biodiversity from farms to the landscape level as part of a multifunctional working landscape

 7)  Tree has a unique role in stabilizing the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration and reducing the carbon emissions or increasing the carbon sink in the different land-use systems. It has the ability to enhance the resilience of the system for coping with the adverse impacts of climate change.  Agroforestry systems have the potential to provide significant mitigation options but they require proper management that influences the amount of carbon sequestered.  agroforestry can be considered as one of the main options for reducing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Agroforestry systems have indirect effects on carbon sequestration because they reduce harvesting pressure on natural forests. After all, trees are the largest source of sinks for terrestrial carbon.

8)Agroforestry-based farming system, especially with multipurpose trees, such as mulberry for sericulture, generates greater economic benefits to farmers compared to the traditional cereal-based system.

9) Nepal has three ecological regions: the terai, the hills, and the mountains, and 12 agroecosystems. Despite such climatic diversity, agriculture is largely based on traditional practices, and in such cases, the adoption of agroforestry may provide high returns

10) Rich in traditional knowledge and skill

Applying such traditional knowledge and skills, farmers have adopted climatic and geographically suitable tree species in the agricultural land to meet their basic needs of food including milk, fodder, and fuelwood since ancient time