INTODUCTION
The word forest refers to a wood or woods in an area with high density of trees. For a forest to support life, it depends on the total conditions of the forest whether healthy or not. This is because life in the forest depends on the other interdependent and interrelated components, so for one component to survive, it totally depends on the other component which supports it. Therefore, this forest assessment aimed at determining the status of the forest resource and state of the UNZA Goma lakes forest. This is a small forest at the University of Zambia specifically at the Goma lakes near the great east road, adjacent to the school of education or main gate. This report will encompass the population of the trees and their classification, measuring the diameter, height, volume of tress. It will also contain the soil type of the area, trees species and animal species found in this forest, forest defects and potential hazards to the species confined in the forest.
BACKGROUND
The reason why the forest was established in that area was because of the higher attitude of that forest. The forest is located at a higher land and because there is no flooding, the eucalyptus trees are able to grow without difficulty.
GEOLOGY OF THE GOMA LAKES FOREST (EUCALYPTUS FOREST)
Geology is the scientific study of the earth’s structure, surface and origins, or the structure of land, together with the types of rocks and minerals that exist within it.
GOMA LAKES FOREST
The area is surrounded by rock structure called Schist, though the whole area is an accumulation of schist and calcium. Schist denoted by the dots on the geological map of Lusaka is found on the higher land and calcium is found on the lower land. It should also be noted that this area (Goma lakes forest) has small traces of magnesium carbonate and dolomite.
THE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF GOMA FOREST.
The Goma Forest is an open access forest located on the North East of the University of Zambia Great East Road Main Campus. The forest extends eastwards along the Great East Road adjacent to the Goma lakes as you enter the campus from the main entrance. The forest is made up of exotic trees mainly Eucalyptus and some few indigenous trees such as Msekese (piliostigma thonningii) and Guava tree (psidium guajava) to mention but a few. The forest assessment samples were collected on part of the forest near the great east road on an area with coordinates;
Point A: S꞊ 15.387501and E꞊ 28.330453 Point B: S꞊ 15.387959 and E꞊ 28.330324

Point C: S꞊ 15.387914 and E꞊ 28.330839 Point D: S꞊ 15.387576 and E꞊ 28.330775

The forest has also some ground vegetation and these include grasses and it has some species of living organisms such as grasshoppers, termites and ants. The area represented by the coordinates above has a population of seventeen trees which were used during the assessment. The conditions of the area can be said to be marsh and green due to its geographical location which is near the Goma lakes which to some extent can be said to be the source of water. The orientation of the forest is towards the east direction.
OBJECIVES
The objectives of the practical that are to be accomplished in this report are as follows:
To determine the population of the given forest.
To measure the canopy size of the trees in comparison to the general official standard of a canopy.
To identify what hazards and defects are found in the area of study.
To determine the animal and plant species in the forest.
To study the leaf structure and the kinds of trees found in the forest.
Understand its geology and history.
To have a complete understanding of the boundaries of the forest.
To ensure that deforestation is not taking place.
Literature review
There are many types of forests in the world. The vegetation of Southern Africa is categorized into four main types: closed forests, woodlands or open forests, Termitaria and grasslands. According to the classification system adopted in vegetation of China, there are 210 forests formation and 94 shrub or bush formation. In addition to these natural forests, there are many other man made forests, including those for artificial timber, shelter, other economic uses and agro forests (Marloth, R. 1932)
There are many tree species diversity and a greater degree of stratifications specifically in this forest. It includes most exotic and indigenous which are shrubs and deciduous. The University of Zambia has a wide variety of tree species, these could be classified into exotic (foreign) and indigenous (local) which are grass and shrubs. The tree types are the eucalyptus is the most abundant tree species at the University of Zambia forest. Also known as the Gum tree and it is exotic. The other tree species is the Piliostigma Thonningii and is also known as the Musekese in the local language. It is a flowering plant, it grows quickly relative to some other tree species. Lantana Camara is another tree species and it is also known as Masepo in the local language it is classified as exotic. The other is Ficus Capensis also known as Mukuyu in local language. Psidium Guajava commonly known as the Apple Guava tree, is an exotic evergreen tree native to Mexico (Mishra, 2000).
Forest assessment include consideration of a forest determined by factors such as its geographical site and condition such as soil type, health, farming, settlement, Potential hazards and plants/ animal species. The type of forest assessed is an open area forest and can be considered as a tropical rain forest. It is marked by a variety of tall trees and a dense canopy and at least three layers of vegetation. The soils are twin, acidic and nutrient content is poor. There is little organic matter that falls on the floor decomposing very quickly and the minerals are quickly absorbed by the roots. Rajagopalan (2011 p:38)
Researchers have found that there are more than 700 species of Eucalyptus and mostly they are native to Australia and a very small number found in adjacent areas. Species of Eucalyptus are cultivated mostly in the tropical and temperate world including America, Europe, Africa, the Mediterrean basin and Toher areas (Gledhill 2008).
Researchers and Environmentalists have found interest in growing trees because of the desirable traits such as fast growing, sources of fire wood, producing oil that can be used for cleaning and as a natural insecticide and an ability to drain swamps and thereby reducing the risk of Malaria. Moreover, outside their ranges, eucalyptus are both lauded for their beneficial economic impacts on populations (Glendhill 2008).
The trees found in the forests have long stems forming a minor proportion for the whole tree height and they have their braches nearly at the top, other trees are short and have the braches just after a short distance above ground level, usually less than 10m (33ft) in height, often with the crown predominantly at the ends of the branches and individual plants may combine to form either an open or closed formation. Many trees may be so slow growing as to be considered a shrub.
It is discovered that nearly all eucalyptus are evergreen but some of the species lose their leaves at the end of the dry season. The leaves are covered with oil glands. The trees are usually towering and fully leafed, their shade is characteristically patchy because the leaves usually land downwards (James, D. 2008).
The appearance of trees bark varies with the age of the plant, the manner of bark shed, the length of bark fibers, the degree of furrowing, the thickness, the hardness and the color. For example a nature of eucalyptus put on an annual layer of bark, which contributes to the increasing diameter of the stems. In some species, the outermost layer of the tree dies and is usually deciduous. The great advantage of the eucalyptus is that they grow fast, require little attention and when cut down grow up again from the roots, it could be harvested every ten years (Zambia Environmental council of Zambia, (2008).
The picture showing the variation of tree barks
The forest under discussion is important as it does not only preserve immerse biodiversity but also plays a major role in recycling weather. This is possible if people in the higher authorities consider the importance of such forests. Scientists found that a forest could return as much as 75% of the moisture it receives back to the atmosphere. Just like any other ecosystem, the forest ecosystem has a major impact on human activities and natural forces, of which include clearing and burning of the forests for agriculture and cattle grazing which eventually results in loss of biodiversity. Extinction of species, soil erosion results in the top soils and decline of the carbon cycles leading to global warming (Rajagopalan, 2011).
However, the clear cutting and conversion of the soils land on higher areas for agriculture, plantations, harvesting leads to land sheds and floods that affect people in the forest and on the plains. It also increases siltation of rivers. For example the forest under discussion had a lake which undergoes siltation as show below:


Picture showing the siltation at the Goma lakes
Pesticides spraying to control insects such as cockroaches and mosquitos leads to poisoning all the way up to the food chain and intended loss of predators like hauls, awls and snakes could lead to extinction.


Methodology
The research methodology contained in this paper is a written report describing the various scientific methods used in the procurement of both primary and secondary data for the intended purpose of assessing the fore mentioned forest. In order to adequately asses the forest, data on the number of trees in the forest, their height, volume, radius and circumference as well as the canopy cover had to be collected. Data on things such as the age of the forest also had to be collected.

Primary data
The quantitative data collected in this paper falls under the category of primary data because it was collected through firsthand experience. Much of the information collected was done so through mathematical calculation and the use of various measuring tools.
It was not enough to visually estimate the height of a tree in order to determine its actual height as its measurements had to be accurate. The measuring of the height of the designated trees in the forest was undertaken with the use of a method that relies on the principle of triangulation with a clinometer. To commence this process an individual from the group was picked. Their height was measured with the use of a measuring tape. A distance of 15m was then measured between the location of the tree and the position of the particular individual. This was done in order to properly see the top of the tree. The individual standing at a distance of 15m away from the tree then looked at the tip of the tree with a clinometers resting at the bridge of his nose. This was done in order to take note of the degrees of the angle at which the person was able to see the top of the tree. The height of the tree that needed to be found in this case was the opposite side of a right angled triangle. In order to calculate it the tangent ratio was used as both the angle and adjacent of the right angle created were present. The dimension of the opposite side found was then added with the height of the individual using the clinometer. The figure derived is the overall height of the tree. Data on the volume, radius and basil area also had to be collected through other calculations.
The circumference and volume were both measured 1.3m of the designated trees, this is at breast height and measured in meters squared (m2). The circumference of the tree is the distance around it. The circumference was measured with the use of a measuring tape. The circumference is necessary in order to calculate the radius of the tree. The radius of a circle or sphere is the length of a line segment from its center to its perimeter. The equation used in order to calculate the radius is: circumference=2πr2
In this case r=radius and π= 3.142
The tree basal area is the cross sectional area of a stem or tree over its bark. The tree basal area will help estimate tree volumes and stand competition. To determine the basal area the diameter was measured at breast height in centimeters and calculated with the use of a formula based on that used to calculate the area of a circle. The equation to be used in the measurement of the basil area of the tree is:
basal area=πr2
In this case r=radius and π= 3.142
The volume of the tree is to be measured at a breast height of 1.3m2 of the tree from ground level. The equation used to calculate the volume is:
v=πr2h
The canopy cover of the forest had to be observed and calculated. The densitometer is used to measure canopy cover over a plot or other local area. Since a densitometer measures canopy presence at single points, multiple points must be measured to obtain a canopy cover estimate. Sample points must be spaced and this was done at three separate points. Using a densitometer is directly analogous to using the dot grid method to estimate canopy cover from aerial imagery. Numerous dots are used to estimate overall coverage.
The densitometer was placed on the ground and the image of the canopy was reflected on to it. Dots covered by the canopy were then counted and the full number of the dots in a row were taken down and added. As the canopy cover was observed at 3 points the total of the 3 points were then added and divided by 3. The number found then provided us with an estimate of the average canopy cover.
Secondary data
The secondary data consists of all the data that was collected from literature sources such as books, journals, magazines and the internet and so on. This selected data was used in the assessment of the forest. The secondary data aided in things such as the identification of the tree species located in the forest, methods used to analyze their structures like leafs and the overall assessment of the forest.
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
INTERPRETATION OF THE TABLE
FOREST CONDITIONS
Conditions of a forest and the environment are determined by a number of factors a few to mention are air pollution, soil chemistry, water quality, surface water acidification, water yield and stream flows, river habitant quality, pollution incidents, crown density, damage by living organisms. Other damages are caused by wind and fire. However, not all these are present in each and every environment. Each has got a few it carries from the many mentioned above and so in our case because of the site of the forest, our concern is diverted to the geology, site conditions, soil type, health, type of farming if any and settlements. There quite a number of things needed to determine even as you conduct a forest assessment, these include animal species found in the forest, soil type, potential hazards, forest type and the species of trees constituting that particular forest and many more.
The kind of forest assessed in this case was found out to be an open type of forest and the type of soil covering the area is in some parts clay and much of it is loamy. The conditions of trees themselves are obviously of prime importance to sustainable forestry, as well as a reflection on health of the wider forest environment. Crown density measures the amount and conditions of visible foliage and basic indicators of tree conditions. The other two indicators are direct observations of the occurrence of serious damage caused by fire, storms, pests or diseases. The forest assessed had the following defects, color change of leaves. Instead of the normal green color that green plants should have, instead they have a brownish color. Other defects include curved tree leaves and tree tops were also dry both branches and leaves. Tree species of the area apart from the gum are grass and shrubs.
Some animal species that were discovered include millipedes, frogs, ants, butterflies, worms, grasshoppers, termites, mosquitoes, dragon flies, birds and cockroaches.
Potential hazards in the area include human activities such as littering, the removal of tree barks and the cutting down of trees. Damage by living organisms such as mammals, insects and fungi gives information about some of the reasons for poor forest conditions. Other hazards are the forest is also used as grazing land.

Tree species and leaf structure

Forests have an impact on our daily lives as they play a significant role in reducing erosion, moderating climate by removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and they also provide a habitat for many animal species and plants. The University of Zambia has a wide variety of tree species, these could be classified into exotic (foreign) and indigenous (local). Some of the tree species noticed during the survey include the following.
The eucalyptus is the most abundant tree species at the University of Zambia forest. Also known as the Gum tree and it is exotic. It has a long trunk and its leaves are evergreen, the leaves are somewhat variable in shape even within single species. The juvenile leaves are totally different from adult ones. The leaves are shade off in the dry season and are covered with oil glands. The eucalyptus are usually towering and fully leafed, their shade is characteristically patchy because the leaves usually hang downwards. The leaves on mature eucalyptus are waxy or glossy.
The other tree species is the Piliostigma Thonningii and is also known as the Musekese in the local language. It is a flowering plant, it grows quickly relative to some other tree species. It competes with other species and relies on rapid re-growth to survive bush fires. Its’ leaves are divided into two lobes and are leathery or glossy above and fine-haired below the leaf surface. The Piliostigma Thonningii is an indigenous tree.
Lantana Kamara is another tree species and it is also known as Masepo in the local language. It is a tree species of flowering plants and is a native of the American tropics. The Lantana Kamara is considered as an invasive species, therefore, classified exotic. The wild species are ever green shrubs or perennials, with simple, often wrinkled leaves and doomed terminal clusters of small, salver shaped flowers. It has a prickly stem bearing wrinkled ovate leaves and terminal clusters salver shaped flowers of 1cm across opening yellow and ageing to red in spring and in summer.
The other is Ficus Capensis also known as Mukuyu in local language. The leaves of the Ficus Capensis are alternate, simple, smooth and glossy, leathery with a stock of 1-7cm. they are vaguely egg shaped with rounded tips and conspicuous on the lower surface. It is an indigenous species.
Finally but not the least, Psidium Guajava commonly known as the Apple Guava tree, is an exotic evergreen tree native to Mexico, the Caribbean and Central and South America. It is a typical Myrtiodeae, with tough dark leaves that are opposite, simple, elliptic to ovate and 5-15cm.
Forest canopy
The canopy is the aboveground portion of a plant community or crop, formed by plant crowns. The term canopy is used to refer to the extent of the outer layer of leaves of an individual tree or group of trees. Dominant and co-dominant canopy trees form the uneven canopy layer. Canopy trees are able to photosynthesize relatively rapidly due to abundant light, so it supports the majority of primary productivity in forests. The canopy layer provides protection from strong winds and storms, while also intercepting sunlight and precipitation, leading to a relatively sparsely vegetated understory layer. Closed Canopy Often seen in rain forests, closed canopies are a set of mature trees whose leaves and branches come together as if to enclose, or crown, the ecosystem. The Pros/Cons of Closed Canopy, closed canopies can hamper the development of vegetation beneath it because the crown prevents much needed sunlight from getting through. However, in high winds and other disastrous weather, the canopy also protects the environment below.
Open canopies on the other hand are a collection of tall trees that have not grown together to shield the sun away from the vegetation below. Open forests are mixtures of trees, shrubs and grasses in which, unlike closed forests, the tree canopies do not form a continuous closed cover. They occur in savanna environments in the semi-arid, sub-humid and humid tropics. Pros/Cons of Open Canopy, open canopies allow sunlight to shine through, therefore promoting the growth through photosynthesis of plants below. However, wildlife is less plentiful as it takes refuge under the cover of closed canopy areas. A much larger proportion of available net radiation is received at the forest floor in open-canopy forests than in closed-canopy forests. The proportion of ecosystem water vapor exchange and sensible heat exchange from the forest floor is therefore expected to be larger in open-canopy forests than in closed-canopy forests. In the study of the forestry conducted, it was found that the forestry at the University of Zambia at the north-east side is an open canopy forest.
Sample points
Number of points covered per box
total
Sample point 1
4
8
5
2
7
3
29
Sample point 2
8
10
15
16
10
7
66
Sample point 3
8
14
17
9
7
4
59


Average of all the points
29 + 66 + 59 = 154 / 3
= 51.3
HAZARDS
Hazard Tree Management deals in probabilities of failure rather than certainties. Age, species (especially rooting and branching characteristics), site, and condition all influence the relative hazard of the trees. There are various hazards that could cause trees to fail which ought to be addressed by hazard tree management for instance, tree age. Every tree species has an inherent life span. Some trees inherently live longer than others. Risk of failure increases with age. Longevity should be considered when evaluating existing tree hazards or selecting species to plant. Generally, longer-lived species are preferred, unless plans are made to maintain or periodically replace less persistent species. The environment in which a tree lives will also determine its possible hazards. Trees growing on rock ledges or far from a body of water often have poor growth rates because they lack sufficient water. Trees recently exposed by the removal of neighboring trees are more susceptible to damaging winds. Also a major cause of tree failure is decay, it is caused by fungi that weaken wood as they grow and reproduce. As healthy trees bend and sway, wood fibers slide past each other. Decaying tissues, however, are not flexible and often break. Each species of fungi has a characteristic, often noticeable, reproductive structure. Some are conks, which are woody and regular, while others are mushrooms that are soft and deteriorate after a short (e.g. several days to a few weeks) period. The presence of many reproductive structures often indicates advanced stages of decay. Decay is often present without obvious signs. Cracks, seams, butt swell, dead branch stubs and large, older wounds suggest internal decay. Decay fungi typically need an opening in the trees bark to enter the tree.
Openings in the bark above and below ground are caused in a variety of ways. Fire, lightning, branches rubbing each other in response to wind and the activities of insects, humans, birds and other animals can wound a tree. Wounds and cankers are two types of tree defects associated with hazards. Cankers are usually tree diseases that are perennial (consistent) and aggressive. These defects enlarge with time and increase the likelihood of tree failure. Furthermore, stress also causes various complications to the trees. For instance, Branches in the upper crown often die from the top-down in response to stress. Stress can be caused by repeated insect defoliation, extended periods of drought, soil compaction or root disease, even opportunistic pests, such as insects and fungi often invade and further stress the tree. Trees can recover from dieback, if the source of the stress is eliminated in time. However, trees with advanced crown decline will die and should be removed. Other causes of stress are Ice storms, heavy wet snow or high winds often trigger failure. Root integrity and health cannot be over emphasized.
In addition to absorbing water and essential elements, roots anchor the tree to the world. If the roots are damaged in any way, tree vitality and health are affected and the likelihood of failure increases. Construction is especially damaging to tree roots. Earthmoving and trenching can cut large portions of the root system. The probability of failure increases as the amount of the root damage increases. Wounds created during construction can cause problems several years after the construction is complete. Tree roots damaged by decay or cutting may cause the tree to become more susceptible to wind throw. Soil depth and drainage also affect wind firmness. Trees rooted in shallow, wet soils are generally more prone to uprooting. Above-ground clues to poor root conditions include thin crowns, with dwarfed, off-color or yellowing leaves, stunted growth, soil compaction, erosion, construction activity, soil fill around the tree, discolored or resinsoaked wood at the root collar and fruiting bodies of root rot fungi growing at or near the base of the trees. Not all mushrooms growing under trees are associated with root diseases. These fungi indicate rotting in the lower trunk or roots of infected trees.

RECOMMENDATIONS
For tree stress Corrective pruning when trees are young can prevent many of these problems. Familiarity with the fruiting bodies of common root-disease fungi is useful during tree hazard inspection.
Check your trees, especially large, old ones. Periodic, thorough inspections are essential to prevent accidents. At least one inspection per year should be made, but two per year are recommended, one in the summer while the leaves are on the tree and one in the winter. Every tree likely to have a problem should be inspected from bottom to top, looking for signs of root or butt rot and continuing up the trunk toward the crown, noting anything that might indicate a potential hazard. Regular inspection and appropriate action is the best way to have your trees.
Prevention is the best action. Start a tree health program as soon as possible. Proper selection and placement of trees prevents many hazard problems. Hazards are often created when a tree is bought and planted, regardless of the original intention. Care of trees during construction projects is also very important in avoiding tree hazards.
CONCLUSION
Forests play a major role in supporting life. This is because they are the major exchangers in the gaseous cycle especially the oxygen and the carbon cycles. Forest assessment helps to preserve the few available forests around. Thought much of Zambia is covered by vegetation, there is a fear for the disturbances due to the influx of economic activities, raising levels of pollution, anthropogenic activities such as late bush fires, charcoal burning, unsustainable timber harvesting, urbanization and many others. Despite the UNZA forest being small and open, it is a habitat to many species as outlined above. The major threats to this forest under discussion are animal grazing and anthropogenic activities such as removing of the barks by the students studying around Goma lakes, cutting down of trees and throwing of litter which disturbs the eco-life within the forest. From the assessment the UNZA Goma lakes forest is not in a bad condition neither are the hazards so severe. None the less much care needs to be put so as to preserve it, probably planting of more trees would be a better option.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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